Bill Dever Criticizes Minimalists

In an article published in the Jewish News Weekly of Northern California, William Dever criticized scholars who have adopted a minimalist view of the biblical traditions and mounted a strong defense of ancient Israel. Dever made his criticism during a recent presentation at the Congregation Emanu-El in San Francisco.

The following are a few excerpts of Dever’s presentation:

“Dever verbally buried a group of academics he referred to as “secular fundamentalists.”

According to Dever, the group is intent on reducing ancient Israel to “foundation myths,” and derives its impetus from a less-than-scholarly locus.

“Most of these people are not Jewish,” said Dever in response to a question after the event. “They are largely Christian theologians who come from a place [northern Europe] that’s been infected with anti-Semitism for centuries, and their ideas reflect that. They’re also almost universally anti-American.”

Dever, who wrote “What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?” said that the work was largely a response to the group of theologians, who Dever says have called him a “Nazi” on numerous occasions.

Dever’s spirited dismissal of the group wasn’t surprising given his enthusiasm for the earth that he has excavated for almost a half-century. The professor, who sits on the editorial boards of groups ranging from the American Journal of Archaeology to the Oxford Encyclopedia of Near Eastern Archaeology, commenced his talk with a personal tribute the city.

“Fifty years ago this summer, I first visited Jerusalem, and it changed my life,” Dever said. “Jerusalem looms large as a home to me — both spiritually and temporally,” he continued, adding that no city in the world can claim to be as archaeologically complex as Jerusalem.

“But against all odds, Jerusalem prevailed, and archaeology gives the lie to people who insist that there were no ancient Jewish cities,” Dever remarked. “Archaeology brings the Bible to life in the most vivid way possible — and that’s its ultimate beauty.”

“In archaeology, if something is too good to be true — it probably is,” he said.

“One of the surest ways we can determine that we’re dealing with ancient Jewish ruins is the absence of pig bones,” Dever said. “It seems that Jewish prohibition against pork goes back a long way.”

Read Dever’s remarks by clicking here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

UPDATE: Read Jim West's criticism of Dever here.

Tags: Archaeology, Minimalists, William Dever

Old Testament or Tanakh: A Response to Chris Heard

It has been several days since I last wrote a post. My work on the Self-Study is consuming most of my available time. This week the Board of Trustees will vote on the Self-Study Report. This week is also the end of the Spring Quarter, finals weeks, and graduation. As Faculty Marshall, I have so many things going on at the same time that I have been unable to post to the blog.

Spare time will be at a premium as I come to the end of the academic year. I hope to have papers read, exams graded, and the last draft of the Self-Study Report finished by the end of June. At that time, I hope to return to posting to the blog every day.

On May 25, I wrote a post “Old Testament or Hebrew Bible.” Richie, at An Ecclesiastical Mutt, responded with a post titled “The Power of Words: Old Testament vs. Hebrew Bible vs. Tanakh.” In his post Richie recognizes that the context dictates what term to use. As a pastor, he uses Old Testament to communicate to his audience.

Christopher Heard at Higgaion responded with a post, “Neither ‘Old Testament’ nor ‘Hebrew Bible.’” Chris said that the only way to clarify the use of the term “Old Testament” is by the use of an adjective to identify which Old Testament is meant, such as Protestant Old Testament, Catholic Old Testament, etc.

Chris prefer the use of “Tanakh.” The word “Tanakh” is an acronym for Torah, Nevi’im, and Kethuvim, the three divisions of the Jewish Bible. Although many people are not familiar with the word “Tanakh,” Chris believes people need to be taught the meaning of the term and he is “a tireless advocate for the term.”

I have no problem with Chris’ use of the word “Tanakh.” To be honest, I believe that “Tanakh” is much better than “Hebrew Bible,” since the Jewish Bible also contains texts in Aramaic. In addition, the use of “Tanakh” clearly indicates that we are talking about the traditional books used in Judaism. I have nothing against the use of the word “Tanakh” to describe the Scriptures of Judaism.

One thing that Chris discussed but never resolved in his post is this: if the Scriptures of Judaism are to be called “Tanakh,” what should we call the Scriptures of the church? If we continue to use New Testament, then we have to presuppose the existence of an Old Testament.

The term “Second Testament” for the Scriptures of the church is not acceptable. The term “Greek Scriptures” is even worse. Maybe we could call them “Christian Scriptures,” but the “Hebrew Bible” or “Tanakh” is also Christian Scriptures.

When Christians avoid the use of the term “Old Testament,” they abandon two thousand years of Christian tradition and practice. To use the term “Hebrew Bible” or “Tanakh” for the first part of the Christian Bible, is to leave the second part nameless.

Any other name for the second section of the Christian Bible robs the church of its tradition and removes the theological implications of the words of Christ and the prophecy of Jeremiah.

Until a better name is found for the New Testament, I will be content in using Old Testament and New Testament for the two sections of the Christian Bible.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Bible, New Testament, Old Testament, Tanakh

Top Ten Old Testament Scholars

Charles Halton of awilum has developed a list of what he considers to be the “Top Ten Old Testament Scholars Since 1800.” It is a good list, but I disagree with his numbers 9 and 10.

At number 9 he lists John Van Seters and Thomas L. Thompson because of their contribution to the minimalist debate. At number 10 he lists William Dever because of his work as an archaeologist.

I believe that the work of Van Seters and Thompson has elicited much debate but the debate does not make them top Old Testament scholars. Dever is a good archaeologist but he cannot be considered a top Old Testament scholar either.

I agree with numbers 1-8 in Halton’s list. However, I would list Albrecht Alt at number 9 and S. R. Driver at number 10. Although Alt never published many books (most of his publications were articles), he has greatly influenced Old Testament studies with his seminal articles. Driver’s commentary on Deuteronomy and his An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament are great examples of works written by a top Old Testament scholar.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary


Tags: Bible, Old Testament, Scholars

Old Testament or Hebrew Bible?

Timothy J. McNulty, the public editor of the Chicago Tribune, wrote an article in which he discusses the issue of how to call the first section of the Bible. The following is an excerpt of his article:

The message was polite but firm: Please stop referring to the "Old Testament."

"Some, maybe many, Jews take offense at use of the term 'Old Testament,' " complained reader Dick Nugent. "We don't have a new testament, so our book is not an old testament."

The historical context is obvious, but the reader is correct, newspapers do not commonly take one religion's terminology to describe the works of another religion.

Better to say the "Hebrew Bible," Nugent suggested helpfully. To be even more specific, the newspaper could use the term "Tanak," an acronym for the five books of the Torah, the teaching of the prophets known as neviim, and the ketuvim, the other sacred writings.

Getting rid of the term Old Testament would stir some controversy and, more to the point, it may be confusing to many readers. The Tribune's stylebook, a guide for consistency and fairness, is silent on the term Hebrew Bible, but language is dynamic and change is a constant at newspapers. More on this later

Language maven William Safire tried to deal with the Old Testament issue several years ago and, after consulting with experts, he found those who suggested "First Testament" or "Early Scriptures" as alternatives. Some dismissed the term Hebrew Bible because originally part of it was in Aramaic; others thought it meant that the text could only be read in Hebrew. There was also a problem in that Judaism, Catholicism and Protestantism don't agree on which books are included, and in which order.

Safire ended up declaring himself a traditionalist and that his personal preference remained Old Testament.

In the conclusion of his article, McNulty declares his preference for Old Testament because of “its clarity.”

Personally, I prefer using Old Testament for theological reasons.

How do you feel about this issue? Let me know.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Bible, Hebrew Bible, Old Testament, Tanak

Ben-Tor, Archaeology, and the Bible

In an article published in NewsMax.com, archaeologist Amnon Ben-Tor gives his views on archaeology, the Bible, and the controversy between maximalists and minimalists. The following is an excerpt taken from the article:

On one side are the so-called biblical minimalists, who argue that the Bible is simply a series of narratives with an agenda and is no basis for history. On the other side are the maximalists, closely allied with creationists, who take the Bible as literal and irrefutable historical fact.

Most archaeologists, however, fall somewhere in between these two extremes, including even those who use the Bible as a historical guidebook for their excavations, such as Israel's leading archaeologist, Amnon Ben-Tor.

"The two claims of the biblical minimalists, that ‘there is no way of knowing' and that the Bible represents an agenda, do not explain anything," says Ben-Tor, who holds the chair of renowned Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin at Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

"Records were kept, which were studied by historians of their time, which often paralleled the biblical narrative."

For one thing, many of the events, names of monarchs, and identification of places in the Bible are confirmed by nonbiblical Iron Age sources -- texts found through archaeological surveys and excavations within the area of historical Judah and Israel, and in excavations in neighboring states. But materials dating to the previous Bronze Age are rare.

Archaeologists such as Ben-Tor and Cooley operate under the assumption that "absence of evidence is not necessarily evidence of absence." In other words, while the Bible tends to be considered guilty until proven innocent as a historical record of ancient events, these biblical scholars estimate that only about 2 percent of the potential archaeological material has been found and worked on.

"The biblical minimalists have suddenly ‘discovered' that … the Bible has a theological agenda, which supposedly makes the Bible a basis that cannot be used as a historiography reference," says Ben-Tor.

"The best way to refute the contention of biblical nonobjectivity is that there is no such thing as objective historiography. All historiography has an agenda. Read 10 books about Vietnam and you will get 10 versions of what happened. The issue at hand is to use the Bible as a reference, and to compare it with all other evidence available."

It is a good article. Read the article in its entirety by clicking here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Amnon Ben-Tor, Maximalists, Minimalists

Augustine and the Canon

Augustine (he is also called Augustin), the Bishop of Hippo (354-430 A.D.), in his treatise, On Christian Doctrine, Book 2, Chapter 8, deals with the study of Scripture and introduces the biblical canon as it existed in his day. This list which mentions all the books that should be considered part of the Christian canon was introduced in the fourth century during the Council of Hippo in 393 A.D. This list of canonical books was also affirmed by the Council of Carthage in 397 A.D.

In his book, Augustine wrote:

But let us now go back to consider the third step here mentioned, for it is about it that I have set myself to speak and reason as the Lord shall grant me wisdom. The most skillful interpreter of the sacred writings, then, will be he who in the first place has read them all and retained them in his knowledge, if not yet with full understanding, still with such knowledge as reading gives, — those of them, at least, that are called canonical.

For he will read the others with greater safety when built up in the belief of the truth, so that they will not take first possession of a weak mind, nor, cheating it with dangerous falsehoods and delusions, fill it with prejudices adverse to a sound understanding.

Now, in regard to the canonical Scriptures, he must follow the judgment of the greater number of catholic churches; and among these, of course, a high place must be given to such as have been thought worthy to be the seat of an apostle and to receive epistles.

Accordingly, among the canonical Scriptures he will judge according to the following standard: to prefer those that are received by all the catholic churches to those which some do not receive. Among those, again, which are not received by all, he will prefer such as have the sanction of the greater number and those of greater authority, to such as are held by the smaller number and those of less authority. If, however, he shall find that some books are held by the greater number of churches, and others by the churches of greater authority (though this is not a very likely thing to happen), I think that in such a case the authority on the two sides is to be looked upon as equal.

Now the whole canon of Scripture on which we say this judgment is to be exercised, is contained in the following books: — Five books of Moses, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; one book of Joshua the son of Nun; one of Judges; one short book called Ruth, which seems rather to belong to the beginning of Kings; next, four books of Kings, and two of Chronicles— these last not following one another, but running parallel, so to speak, and going over the same ground. The books now mentioned are history, which contains a connected narrative of the times, and follows the order of the events.

There are other books which seem to follow no regular order, and are connected neither with the order of the preceding books nor with one another, such as Job, and Tobias, and Esther, and Judith, and the two books of Maccabees, and the two of Ezra, which last look more like a sequel to the continuous regular history which terminates with the books of Kings and Chronicles.

Next are the Prophets, in which there is one book of the Psalms of David; and three books of Solomon, viz., Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes. For two books, one called Wisdom and the other Ecclesiasticus, are ascribed to Solomon from a certain resemblance of style, but the most likely opinion is that they were written by Jesus the son of Sirach. Still they are to be reckoned among the prophetical books, since they have attained recognition as being authoritative.

The remainder are the books which are strictly called the Prophets: twelve separate books of the prophets which are connected with one another, and having never been disjoined, are reckoned as one book; the names of these prophets are as follows: — Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi; then there are the four greater prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel. The authority of the Old Testament is contained within the limits of these forty-four books.

That of the New Testament, again, is contained within the following: — Four books of the Gospel, according to Matthew, according to Mark, according to Luke, according to John; fourteen epistles of the Apostle Paul — one to the Romans, two to the Corinthians, one to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, to the Philippians, two to the Thessalonians, one to the Colossians, two to Timothy, one to Titus, to Philemon, to the Hebrews: two of Peter; three of John; one of Jude; and one of James; one book of the Acts of the Apostles; and one of the Revelation of John.

Notes on Augustine’s View of the Canon

1. Augustine recommends that Christians read and retain the content of the canonical books.

2. It is clear that in his day the canon was not fixed, since he does not include the Book of Lamentations (see below) and since he speaks of accepting as canonical only those books that were widely accepted by the church.

3. His canon of the Old Testament contains forty-four books. These books are divided as follows:

a. The five books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

b. The historical books: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings (1 and 2 Samuel; 1 and 2 Kings), and 1 and 2 Chronicles.

c. Other books which he says are not connected: Job, Tobias, Esther, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees, and the two books of Ezra (Ezra and Nehemiah).

d. The Wisdom books, which Augustine called “The Prophets.” These are: one book of the Psalms of David, three books of Solomon, that is, Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, and Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, which Augustine believed were written by Jesus the son of Sirach.

e. The Prophetic books. Augustine lists the Minor Prophets first and then he lists the Major Prophets.

The Minor Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

The Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezekiel.

Augustine does not mention the book of Lamentations which was excluded from his list of canonical books. In his list, Daniel precedes Ezekiel, probably following a chronological arrangement of the two books.

f. New Testament. Augustine is credited as the first person to list all the New Testament books as they appear in today’s Bibles. According to Augustine, the New Testament in composed of the following books:

Four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.

Pauline Epistles: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and Hebrews. Augustine accepted the traditional view that Paul wrote Hebrews.

The Other Epistles: 1 and 2 Peter; 1, 2, and 3 John; Jude; and James.

The Other Books: The book of the Acts of the Apostles; and the Revelation of John.

Thus, it seems that the canon of the biblical books, including the New Testament, was almost fixed by the end of the fourth century. Although Augustine rejected the book of Lamentations, Jerome included the book in his translation of the Bible.

Before there was the canonical list of Augustine, there was the list developed by Athanasius in 367 A.D. In my next post I will compare Athanasius’ list with Augustine’s list.

Next in the series: Athanasius and the Canon.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Augustine, Bible, Canon

Psalm 151

In my post on the “The Canon of the Old Testament,” I mentioned that the Orthodox Bible contains one extra psalm, Psalm 151.

This psalm appears in some manuscripts of the Septuagint as a genuine psalm of David and counted as part of the collection of biblical psalms. In other manuscripts, however, the psalm appears as supernumerary, that is, the psalm is not numbered among the biblical psalms. Since many people have never read Psalm 151, I have decided to post the psalm as an addition to my post on the canon.

The title of psalm in the Septuagint reads:

“This psalm is ascribed to David as his own composition (though it is outside the number), after he had fought in single combat with Goliath.”

The translation of Psalm 151 below comes from the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV):

1 I was small among my brothers, and the youngest in my father’s house; I tended my father’s sheep.

2 My hands made a harp; my fingers fashioned a lyre.

3 And who will tell my Lord? The Lord himself; it is he who hears.

4 It was he who sent his messenger and took me from my father’s sheep, and anointed me with his anointing oil.

5 My brothers were handsome and tall, but the Lord was not pleased with them.

6 I went out to meet the Philistine, and he cursed me by his idols.

7 But I drew his own sword; I beheaded him, and took away disgrace from the people of Israel.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Canon, Psalm 151, Septuagint

The Canon of the Old Testament

Today I begin a series of studies on the canon of the Old Testament. Although the Bible is the book of the church and although Christians everywhere recognize that the Bible is the Word of God, Christians (and Jews) look at the Bible from different perspectives.

This first study deals with the content of the Bible. The Bible is divided into two sections: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The word “Testament” comes from a Hebrew word (by the way of the Greek New Testament) which means “covenant.”

The name “Old Testament” reflects the Christian’s belief that the promise of a new covenant in Jeremiah 31:31-34 was fulfilled in Christ.

The Jewish people today call their scripture Tanak. It is also known as the Hebrew Bible. The word “Tanak” comes from an acronym made up of the initial consonants of the three major parts of the Hebrew Bible: Torah (Law), Nebiim (Prophets) and Kethubim (Writings).

The Canon of the Old Testament

The word “canon” is a Greek word derived from a Hebrew word which means “reed.” In the ancient Near East reeds were used as measuring sticks. The word also means “rule,” “list,” and “standard.” In Ezekiel 40:3, 5 the Hebrew word is translated as “a measuring reed.”

The canon is a body of authoritative literature which is directly related to the religious life of the community which treasures it. There are three accepted canons. First, the Jewish canon, also known as the “Palestinian canon,” contains 24 books. The Alexandrian canon, the canon used in the Catholic and Orthodox churches, contains 39 books plus additional books or additions to biblical books. These books are generally known as the Apocrypha or the Deuterocanonical books. The Protestant canon contains 39 books. These are the same books of the Palestinian canon, but organized in a different order.

The Protestant Canon

The Old Testament in the Protestant canon, found in most English Bibles, contains 39 books and is divided into four sections:

1. Pentateuch: 5 books

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

2. Historical Books: 12 books

Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.

3. Poetical Books: 5 books

Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs.

4. Prophetical Books: 17 books

(a) Major Prophets: 5 books

Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentation, Ezekiel, and Daniel.

(b) Minor Prophets: 12 books

Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

The Hebrew Bible (Tanak)

The Hebrew Bible, or the Palestinian canon, contains 24 books and it is divided into three sections:

1. Torah (Law or Teaching): 5 books

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

2. Nebiim (Prophets): 8 books

(a) Former Prophets: 4 books

Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings.

(b) Latter Prophets: 4 books

Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve.

3. Kethubim (Writings): 11 books

(a) Poetry: 3 books

Psalms, Job, and Proverbs.

(b) Megilloth (Festal Scrolls): 5 books

Song of Songs: read at Passover.

Ruth: read at the Feast of Weeks or Pentecost.

Lamentations: read on the ninth of Ab, the day Jerusalem was destroyed in 587 B.C.

Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth): read at the feast of Tabernacles (Feast of Booths).

Esther: read at the feast of Purim.

(c) The other writings: 3 books

Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles.

The Alexandrian Canon

The Alexandrian canon was compiled in Alexandria, Egypt by Jews who had adopted Greek culture and used the Greek language as the primary means of communication. The translation of Hebrew scriptures into Greek became known as the Septuagint (generally abbreviated as the LXX).

The Old Testament in the Alexandrian canon, contains the same books found in the Palestinian canon and several other books and addition to biblical books which were not included in the Palestinian canon. These are the books of the Alexandrian canon:

1. Pentateuch: 5 books

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

2. Historical Books: 16 books

Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther (including the additions to the book), 1 Maccabees, and 2 Maccabees.

3. Poetical Books: 7 books

Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus (also known as Wisdom of ben Sirach).

4. Prophetical Books: 17 books

(a) Major Prophets: 6 books

Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentation, Baruc (including the Letter of Jeremiah), Ezekiel, and Daniel (including The Prayer of Azariah, The Song of the Three Jews, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon).

(b) Minor Prophets: 12 books

Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

The Orthodox Canon

The Orthodox canon is used in Orthodox churches. The Old Testament in the Orthodox Bible contains the same books found in the Palestinian canon, the additional books and addition to biblical books found in the Alexandrian canon plus other books and additions which were not included in the Palestinian nor the Alexandrian canons. These are the books of the Orthodox Bible:

1. Pentateuch: 5 books

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

2. Historical Books: 17 books

Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Kingdoms (1 Samuel), 2 Kingdoms (2 Samuel), 3 Kingdoms (1 Kings), 4 Kingdoms (2 Kings), 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras (Ezra, Nehemiah), Esther (including the additions to the book), Judith, Tobit, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, and 3 Maccabees (4 Maccabees appears in the appendix).

3. Poetical Books: 8 books

Psalms (including Psalm 151), Prayer of Manasseh, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus (also known as Wisdom of ben Sirach).

4. Prophetical Books: 17 books

(a) Minor Prophets: 12 books

Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

(b) Major Prophets: 6 books

Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruc, Lamentation, Letter of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel (including The Prayer of Azariah, The Song of the Three Jews, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon).

In a later post I will discuss in more detail these different canons.

Next in this series: “Augustine and the Canon.”

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Apocrypha, Bible, Canon, Deuterocanonical, Septuagint

The Thinking Blogger Award

Chris Heard at Higgaion has awarded me the Thinking Blogger Award. Four other bloggers were also nominated. All of them are good bloggers. Visit Chris’ page and become familiar with his selection of good bloggers.

I appreciate the recognition. Chris’ blog is one of the several blogs I read every day.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Blogging, Blogs

Queen Nefertiti and the War Between Egypt and Germany

Photo: Queen Nefertiti



Zahi Hawass, Egypt's chief archaeologist, said that if Germany does not return the bust of Queen Nefertiti, there will be a war between Egypt and Germany.

The following is an excerpt of the news report published in The New Zealand Herald:

More than 3000 years after her reign as queen to a mysterious pharaoh, Nefertiti has sparked a row between Egypt, which wants her bust returned for an exhibition, and Germany, which is refusing to let it leave Berlin, where it is the city's greatest treasure.

The painted limestone sculpture of the great queen is one of the most famous depictions of beauty and female power, showing a woman with exquisite features in the prime of life.

After lying in sand on the banks of the Nile for more than three millennia, the life-size bust was brought back into daylight in 1912 by a German archaeologist, Ludwig Borchardt

"I really want it back," Egyptian chief archaeologist Zahi Hawass told the Egyptian Parliament last week.

"If Germany refuses the loan request, we will never again organise exhibitions of antiquities in Germany ... it will be a scientific war."

Read the news report here.

Nefertiti ruled Egypt with her husband in the 14th century BC. Nefertiti was the wife of Amenhotep IV, Pharaoh of Egypt. Amenhotep changed his name Akhenaten in honor of the god Aten during his religious reform which established the worship of the sun god as the only official religion in Egypt. This religious reform occurred in a historical period called the Amarna Age.

Nefertiti was stepmother of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, also known as King Tut. Her name means “The Beautiful One Has Arrived.” The bust was discovered at the ruins of Amarna in Egypt, by a German archaeologist, Ludwig Borchardt, in December 1912.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, King Tut, Nefertiti

The Leviticus Scroll: The Controversy

Haaretz is reporting that an Israeli archaeologist is accusing Israel Antiquities Authority of destroying the Leviticus scroll. The article says:

Professor Hanan Eshel, the archaeologist who two years ago uncovered scroll fragments of the Book of Leviticus, says the Israel Antiquities Authority, which now has the finds, has cut out large chunks of the scroll on the pretext that its dating needed to be examined.

This was not a necessary procedure, says Eshel, since "experts say it was possible to test the dating without an intrusive examination and in the worst case scenario by cutting a tiny, peripheral portion of the scroll."

Relying on internal sources in the Antiquities Authority, Eshel says "there had even been plans to cut letters from the scroll but the employees that were asked to do so refused."

The dispute between Eshel and Israel Antiquities Authority emerged because the Authority wants to prove whether the scroll is a forgery.

Read the news report by clicking here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Hanan Eshel, Leviticus Scroll

King Herod’s Tomb: The Pictures

Arutz Sheva has published a great collection of pictures of King Herod’s tomb shown by Professor Ehud Netzer at the time he addressed journalists and announced the discovery of the tomb. Great pictures. Worth seeing.

Click here to see the pictures.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Herod, Ehud Netzer

Herod the Great

The New Zealand Herald, of Auckland, New Zealand, has published a good article detailing some of the historical facts related to the life and reign of Herod the Great. About Herod’s funeral, the article says:

The Roman historian Flavius Josephus described the lavish funeral procession in his book The Jewish War. He told how the body was attended by members of the family dressed in silks and jewels, how soldiers from across the ancient world paraded in their armour, accompanied by hundreds of attendants carrying spices such as frankincense. He said the king's body was covered in a purple shroud and carried on a bier.

Claude F. Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Herod the Great

The Death of Death

Note: the following is a short version of a sermon preached at Trinity Baptist Church on Easter Sunday 2007.

The Death of Death

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross was a therapist who worked with people who were facing death. In one of her books, Kubler-Ross mentioned the story of a child, an 8-year-old boy, who was dying with a brain tumor. She asked him to draw a picture that would describe his situation.

The boy drew a picture of a house, some trees, and the sun hiding behind a mountain. The events in the picture reflected what was taking place at sunset. In front of the house there was an army tank and in front of the tank there was a sign with the word: “STOP.” This picture reflected the child’s fear of death and his inability to stop it.

Many years ago, when I was the pastor of a church in California, a faithful and committed member of my church died. That aged woman had been a member of the church for many years and was loved by all. The wake service was a time of celebration: people were singing and praising God for her life.

The grandchildren of the woman were very upset. They were angry because the members of the church were singing and not crying. They just could not understand the real meaning of the death of a believer.

At the cemetery, after the brief service of Scripture reading and prayer, the grandchildren demanded that the casket be opened so they could say good-bye to their grandmother one last time. The reason for their action was because, they said, they would never see her again.

Why are so many people afraid of death? Some people are afraid of death because they are not sure whether there is life after death. They want to enjoy life now, as much as possible, because they do not know what will come next.

Some people are afraid of death because they know that there is life after death and they are not prepared to meet God. Other people are afraid of death because they know there is a judgement and they know they will be found guilty.

A study was conducted about religion and people’s attitude toward death. The result of this study is very revealing. The study revealed that if a person is religious, the less religious that person is, the greater the fear of death. The study also revealed that the more religious a person is, the less fear that person has of dying. The study showed that most atheists do not fear death because for them life ends at the time of death.

The resurrection of Christ is the good news that God in Christ has conquered death. Hebrews 2:14-15 says: “Since the children have flesh and blood, he too shared in their humanity so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death–that is, the devil–and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death.”

The work of Christ was to free those who were held in slavery because of their fear of death. The resurrection of Christ is the believer’s victory over death.

Although Christ conquered death, people today are still afraid of death. To deal with this fear, people have developed different reasons to dispel the fear of death. These are some of the reasons people give in dealing with the fear of death:

“There is no life after death, so I don’t have to fear death.”
“There is no God, so I don’t fear death.”
“There is no hell, so I don’t have to fear death and judgment.”
“In the end God will save everybody, so I don’t have to fear death.”

But death is real. God told Adam about the consequence of disobedience: “You must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die” (Genesis 2:17). It is sin that has made death so frightening. It is disobedience that gave sin its destructive power and created the fear of dying. People who understand the frailty of their lives and are confronted with the reality of their mortality, fear death.

According to Hebrews 2:9, this is the reason Jesus became a human being. The writer says that Jesus suffered death so that by the grace of God he might taste death for everyone. This is the same message of Hebrews 2:14-15: Jesus became a human being and died so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death and deliver all those people who fear death. And here is the irony: Jesus destroyed the power of death by dying on the cross. The death of death came through the death of Christ.

The Bible portrays death as an enemy. Death entered the world because of sin. Death was never God’s purpose for his creation, thus, the presence of death shows the reality of sin. But death is contrary to God’s will. God wants every individual to have life, eternal life.

Jesus came to break the power of death, he came to deal with the fear of dying. Jesus died to overcome a common enemy: death. It is the resurrection of Christ that breaks the power of death. Death came through one man. The death of death also came through one man: Jesus. As Paul said: “In Adam all die, in Christ all will be made alive” (1 Corinthians 15:22).

In 1 Corinthians 15:50-57 Paul teaches that human nature cannot lead people into the kingdom of God. Every human being, sooner or later, must die. But Paul describes something wonderful. He speaks of a mystery that even today, many people cannot fully understand. He says that one day those who have died in Christ will get up from their graves, free from the reach of death, never to die again.

“Then the saying will come true: Death has been swallowed by triumphant Life! Who got the last word, oh, Death? Oh, Death, who's afraid of you now?” (1 Corinthians 15:55).

"Where, O death, is your victory?”

There is no more victory for death, for the death of Christ brought the death of death.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Death, Resurrection, Sermon

King Herod's Tomb Was Desecrated

According to a news report published in Haaretz, the archeologist who located King Herod's tomb at Herodium said Tuesday that the grave had been desecrated, apparently shortly after his death, but called the discovery a "high point."

Read the news report by visiting Haaretz.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Herod, Herodium

An Ancient Greek Inscription

IN THE NEWS

A news article published in Haaretz reports that an ancient Greek inscription, dating to 178 BCE contains the name of King Seleucus, the king who preceded Antiochus Epiphanes. The policies of Antiochus Epiphanes sparked the Maccabean revolt. The following is the article published in Haaretz:

A recently deciphered ancient Greek stele (inscribed stone slab) is currently on display at the Israel Museum. The stele was produced in 178 B.C.E. in Israel at a time when the region was ruled by the Hellenistic Seleucid empire.

The inscription depicts events that preceded the Hasmonean rebellion. It mentions King Seleucus IV, who occupied the throne before Antiochus IV, the target of the Maccabean revolt, and the king's chief minister Heliodorus, who sparked the first open conflict between Greeks and Jews by attempting to seize funds from the Second Temple.

Researchers are unsure where exactly the inscription was discovered, and examinations commissioned by the museum failed to uncover any signs the inscription was inauthentic. The stele was deciphered by two leading ancient inscription researchers: Hannah Cotton-Paltiel of Hebrew University in Jerusalem and Professor Michael Woerrle of the German Archaeological Institute in Munich. American-Jewish philanthropist Michael Steinhardt, who acquired the stele a few months ago, gave the stele to the museum on an extended loan.

The inscription appears on the uppermost part of a stone column engraved with three letters. To date, this is the second stele from this period to be found in the region. The inscription describes King Seleucus IV's appointment of senior Greek clerk Olympiodorus to oversee sanctuaries in Israel and surrounding areas. In the first letter, King Seleucus IV informs his deputy Heliodorus of the appointment and the second and third announces more minor appointments.

"The Seleucids had a highly organized bureaucracy," explains David Mevorah, curator of archaeology at the Israel Museum. "They took pains to publicize all correspondence pertaining to appointments of senior clerks on columns placed in sites under the jurisdiction of those same clerks."

Mevorah says the column bearing the inscription would have been situated in one of the sanctuaries located in Olympiodorus' jurisdiction in Israel - sanctuaries which included the Second Temple in Jerusalem.

However, Mevorah says the column could not have been located in the Second Temple. He says stele is mainly significant for understanding the historical appointments process.

"One might view the appointment as a turning point in Hellenistic-Seleucid involvement in local sanctuaries and even Jewish ritual, and deteriorating relations between them [Greeks and Jews]."

King Seleucus IV was assassinated in 175 B.C.E., three years after the appointment described in the stele. He was replaced by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (the "Shining One" in Greek), who ruled during the Maccabean revolt. The first instance of open tension between both sides took place when Heliodorus entered the Temple and attempted to confiscate money. He was expelled in disgrace. The Maccabean rebellion actually began in 167 B.C.E. in response to grave, religious edicts imposed by Antiochus IV.

Another historical discovery is concurrently on display at the new Masada Museum, which opened last Thursday: A piece of a scroll that includes the text of Psalm 150, which survived almost in its entirety.

The text is identical to the current traditional version of the psalm. The empty space on the inscription indicates this was the last chapter of the 90th Scroll, in accordance with Massorah, the textual tradition of the Hebrew Bible. However, this negates the Greek Septuagint translation and the Dead Sea Scrolls, which contain an additional psalm: Psalm 151.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Antiochus Epiphanes, Archaeology, Maccabean Revolt, Seleucus, Inscriptions

Herod’s Tomb and Grave Found at Herodium

According to a news release published in Haaretz, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced that it has uncovered the grave and tomb of King Herod, who ruled Judea for the Roman empire from about 37 BCE. The following news release was published in Haaretz:

According to a press release from the Hebrew University, the news of the archeological find at Herodium was to be announced Tuesday morning at a special news conference, and was to be kept secret until then, but the discovery by Haaretz of the story had led to the premature announcement.

The tomb was discovered by Hebrew University Professor Ehud Netzer, who is considered one of the leading experts on King Herod. Netzer has conducted archeological digs at Herodium since 1972 in an attempt to locate the grave and tomb.

The discovery solves one of Israel's greatest archeological mysteries. Additional details will be made available at the Tuesday press conference.

The majority of researchers had believed that Herod was in fact buried at Herodium, based on the writings of the ancient Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, but multiple excavations at the site failed to locate the grave.

Netzer's successful dig focused on a different part of the site than previous excavations, between the upper part of Herodium and the site's two palaces.

Herodium, a fortified palace built by Herod some 12 kilometers south of Jerusalem, was destroyed by the Romans in 71 CE.

Herod, whose father and grandfather converted to Judaism, was appointed governor of Galilee at the age of 25 and was made "King of the Jews" by the Roman senate in approximately 40 BCE. He remained king for around 34 years.

Herod, also known as Herod the Great, is credited with expanding the Second Temple and building Caesarea, Masada, and many other monumental construction projects. He died in the year 4 BCE in Jericho after a long illness.

Herod decided to construct his tomb at Herodium because the site played a role in two dramatic events in his life. In the year 43 BCE, when Herod was still governor of the Galilee, he was forced to flee Jerusalem along with his family after his enemies the Parthians laid siege to the city.

His mother's chariot flipped over near Herodium, and Herod became hysterical until he realized she was only lightly wounded. A short while later, the Parthians caught up to Herod and his entourage, although Herod and his men emerged victorious in the ensuing battle.

At Herodium, Herod built one of the largest monarchical complexes in the Roman Empire, which served as a residential palace, a sanctuary, an administrative center and a mausoleum. Herod first built an artificial cone-shaped hill that could be seen from Jerusalem, on which he constructed a fortified palace surrounded by watchtowers that he used solely in wartime.

This is good news. Each new archaeological discovery in Israel and the lands of the Bible sheds light on events and people mentioned in the Bible. The discovery of Herold’s tomb may reveal information that has been unavailable to scholars. We wait with eager anticipation the additional information about this important discovery.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Ehud Netzer, Herod, Herodium

The Lost Kings of the Bible

Last night the National Geographic Channel presented “The Lost Kings of the Bible.” The program dealt with the reigns of David and Solomon and the historicity of the biblical account.

It was a good program. The presentation was balanced and fair and both sides of the controversy were introduced without one side pushing one view against the other.

Several archaeologists participated in the program and gave brief summaries of discoveries at specific archaeological sites and the relevance of those sites to the biblical text.

Ronny Rich talked about the discovery of a tunnel that may be identified with the water tunnel mentioned in 2 Samuel 5:8 that David’s men used to enter the Jebusite city of Jerusalem.

Gila Cook showed the Tel Dan Stela and the Aramaic inscription containing a reference to the “house of David.” The Tel Dan Stela is the first document that mentions the name of David outside the Bible.

Aren Meir showed the remains of the Philistine city of Gath, the city where Goliath lived. The discovery at Gath of a broken piece of pottery containing the name of Goliath is of great significance because it reveals that the name Goliath was a real Philistine name, not a name invented to embellish the killing of a Philistine giant.

On the reign of Solomon, the program discussed the Temple and the lack of archaeological evidence for the remains of the structure and for the treasures of the Temple. The possibility that the treasures of the Temple were taken by Shishak, the king of Egypt, after the death of Solomon, is seen as a possibility.

The program also discussed the structures at Megiddo and whether the stables to house the horses belonged to Solomon or to some other king, probably Ahaz, king of Israel.

Israel Finkelstein presented his views that the archaeological evidence may be interpreted from a different perspective. For instance, he said that Goliath’s armor as it appears in the biblical text, is anachronistic because it describes the armor of Greek soldiers of the 7th-5th BCE. He also believes that the “Solomonic gates” at Megiddo do not reflect the work of Solomon but were built much later than the 9th BCE.

Over all, the presentation was fair. I am sure that the program will be presented again on the National Geographic Channel. If you did not have an opportunity to see it last night, I strongly recommend that you watch it at a later time.

Jim West has written a post that describes each segment of the program. His post is very good and presents an excellent description of each segment of the program.

Jim and I differ a little bit about the conclusion of the program. Jim wrote: “Will [the program] change any minds? I doubt it. Those finding any scrap of evidence ‘proof’ will continue to see in the ‘Goliath sherd’ and Tel Dan the proof they need. And those wishing for more substantive, less enigmatic and uncertain evidence will still have to wait for it.”

I came away with a little more positive outlook. Even though the archaeological evidence may not be conclusive, those watching the program will come away agreeing that David was a real historical person.

As for Solomon, we must wait a little longer.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Read my previous post on this topic: “The Lost Kings of the Bible: A Review”

Tags: Archaeology, David, Solomon, Lost Kings

The Lost Kings of the Bible: A Review

On Sunday, May 6, 2007, The National Geographic Channel will present the “Lost Kings of the Bible.” This program is a study of the reign of David and Solomon and a discussion of recent archaeological discoveries that have a bearing on the historical events described in the biblical text.

The blurb describing the program summarizes the content of the program: “Are two of the most famous kings of the Bible - King David and King Solomon - mythical heroes or made of flesh and blood?” The program will explore what the National Geographic Channel calls “groundbreaking new evidence that may provide answers to these questions.”

The purpose of this post is to review some of the issues that will be raised by the program and addressed by some of the archaeologists that were interviewed in the program. The issues discussed in this post are in the forefront of the debate raging in scholarly circles on the historicity of David and his monarchy.

The question that has been raised by biblical scholars and archaeologists concerns the historical reliability of the biblical texts. In recent years, archaeologists have claimed that the patterns of settlement in the land of the Bible have cast doubts about whether there was a united monarchy during the days of David and Solomon.

The traditional view says that after the death of Saul, David became the king of Judah first and then of Israel. David became the king of a united Israel. David’s kingdom grew and became a small empire. With the conquest of neighboring nations, David’s kingdom covered a territory that extended from the borders of Egypt all the way to the Euphrates.

However, this view has been challenged by archaeologists. In their book, The Bible Unearthed, Finkelstein and Silberman (p. 131) say that there is no archaeological evidence for David’s conquests or for his empire. Their conclusion was that archaeologists misdated the evidence for David and Solomon by a century (p. 142).

Some biblical scholars are skeptical about the historicity of the Davidic monarchy. In his review of Storia d’Israele: Introduzione alla storia d’Israele e Giuda dalle origini alla rivolta di Bar Kochbà by Alberto J. Soggin, Jim West wrote:

One overarching question that needs further address (not only by Soggin but by most historians of ancient Israel) is, How can so much be said about so many when historical sources are so few (and almost fairly said, nonexistent)? How can Soggin really say what he says about the Davidic monarchy when there is no historical source for it?

After discussing the problem of history vs. historiography, Jim concludes:

In short, what Soggin brilliantly offers us here is theology in the makeup of history. If the makeup is scrubbed off and the pristine skin of theology laid bare for what it is, we have a simple retelling of the story of the Bible. Or perhaps an archaeological example will be better. If the patina of theology is scrapped [sic] off the underlying historical events, the one who scrapes will soon discover that the patina is so thick that the actual artifact is forever encased and hence lost unless the patina is thoroughly shattered, which would sadly also shatter the membrane-thin artifact beneath. What Soggin (and virtually all other historians of ancient Israel) offers us is more patina on the existing patina of historicism. If this is not the case, I have a simple solution: let two or three witnesses (aside from the biblical text) be called and testify to what they have seen and heard or else admit the hearsay nature of the evidence and dismiss the case called Historical Ancient Israel as unfounded.

There are three witnesses (aside from the biblical text) that mention the house of David: the Tel Dan Stela, the Mesha Stela, and the Karnak Inscription.

The Tel Dan Stela. The discovery and publication of the fragments of the Tel Dan inscription revealed for the first time the existence of “the house of David.” This reference to David in the Tel Dan Stela is the first time that the name of David appears in a non-biblical material. Although a few scholars have made an attempt at translating byt-dwd as the “Temple of Dod,” this translation has been almost universally rejected. Dod as the name of a god does not appear in any ancient literature.

The Tel Dan mentions a king of Israel and a king from the House of David. Although the fragments are broken, the names have been identified with Jehoram, son of Ahab and king of Israel, and Ahaziah, a king from the house of David.

The Mesha Stela. The second reference to the House of David appears in the stela of Mesha, king of Moab. Mesha ruled in the 9th century B.C. Mesha had been paying tribute to Israel since the days of Omri but after the death of Ahab, Omri’s son, he rebelled and reconquered several cities that were under Israelite control, including the city of Horonen, which was under the control of the house of David.

The Karnak Inscription. The third reference to the house of David may be found in the Karnak inscription in Thebes. The inscription celebrates Shishak’s victory against the Asiatics.
Shishak, also known as Shoshenq I, was a Libyan and the founder of the Twenty-Second Dynasty of Egypt. Shishak invaded Canaan in the fifth year of Rehoboam, son of Solomon and king of Judah. The information about his presence in Canaan is found in 1 Kings 14:25-26 and in 2 Chronicles 12:2-9. According to the biblical text, Shishak took as tribute the wealth of the temple and the treasures of the royal palace. The inscription lists the places in Israel and Judah that Shishak said he conquered. Among the names listed there is a list of places located in “the heights of David.”

In addition to this possible evidence for the name of David, other recent archaeological discoveries are shedding light on the tenth century and events associated with the life of David. For instance, I have written about the discovery of David’s palace by Eilat Mazar and about Aren Maeir’s discovery of a broken piece of pottery containing an inscription in early Semitic style spelling with the name of Goliath.

More and more archeologists are discovering evidence that David was a real person. The discovery of inscriptions bearing the title “the house of David” tends to substantiate that David was a real person. Now, there is no reason to deny the historicity of David and his house.

As for the reality of a monarchy, the recent findings may not be enough yet to prove that there was a government in Jerusalem during David’s reign. Was David the leader of an Iron Age chiefdom? Is the concept of a united monarchy the legacy of the post-exilic community?

As Finkelstein and Silberman wrote:

There is hardly a reason to doubt the historicity of David and Solomon. Yet there are plenty of reasons to question the extent and splendor of their realm. If there was no big empire, if there were no monuments, if there was no magnificent capital, what was the nature of David’s realm?

I do not believe that the “Lost Kings of the Bible” will answer this question. Until a few years ago, some people were willing to say that David and Solomon never existed and that they were invented to promote a utopian view of a united Israel.

Today we can say with certainty that there was a “house of David” and that someone was called “Goliath.” Today we can say that Omri, Ahab, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoash, Menahem, Pekah, and Hoshea, kings of Israel, are mentioned in extra-biblical documents. We can also say with certainty that David, Jehoram, Ahaziah, Uzziah, Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, kings of Judah, are also mentioned in extra-biblical documents.

What else is buried in the remains of old cities? What kinds of written material are buried that have not yet been discovered? We do not know what else will be discovered a few years from now or in the next decade. But one thing is sure: little by little we are learning that the lost kings of the Bible are being found, one at the time.

References:

Biran, Avraham. “‘David’ Found at Dan.” Biblical Archaeology Review (March/April 1994): 26-39.

Finkelstein, Israel and Neil A. Silberman. The Bible Unearthed. New York: The Free Press, 2001.

Kitchen, K. A. “A Possible Mention of David in the Late Tenth Century BCE, and the Deity *Dod as Dead as the Dodo?” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 76 (1997): 29-44.

Lemaire, Andre. “‘House of David’ Restored in Moabite Inscription.” Biblical Archaeology Review (May/June 1994): 30-37.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: David, Karnak Inscription, Lost Kings of the Bible, Mesha Stela, Solomon, Tel Dan Stela

Where is the ACLU?

The following article was published in the WorldNetDaily.com

The Kansas City International Airport has added several foot-washing basins in restrooms to accommodate a growing number of Muslim taxicab drivers who requested the facilities to prepare for daily Islamic prayer, WND has learned.

The move concerns airport police who worry about Middle Eastern men loitering inside the building. After 9/11, the airport beefed up its police force to help prevent terrorist attacks.

"Why are we constructing places of worship for them inside our airports?" said an airport official who requested anonymity. "Why are we catering to their rituals? We don't do it for any other religion."

Other major airports also are dealing with increased demands from Muslim cabdrivers.

For instance, cabbies at Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport recently caused a stir when they refused to carry passengers possessing alcoholic beverages or accompanied by seeing-eye dogs. Alcohol is forbidden in Islam, and dogs are considered unclean.

There are approximately 250 taxicab drivers operating at KCI Airport in Missouri, one of the largest airports in the U.S., linking some 10 million passengers between mid-America and other U.S. cities. Approximately 70 percent of the drivers are of Middle Eastern heritage and practice the Islamic faith, sources say.

KCI Airport Police are responsible for the cab drivers, including the holding areas of the building. The KCI Aviation Department, which oversees the police, recently expanded the taxicab facility restroom area to include the construction of four individual foot-washing benches.

The cost of the project is not immediately known. A spokeswoman for the engineering department said she could not break out the figures.

KCI Airport Police Capt. Jim Harmon declined comment, explaining, "This is a touchy subject."

He referred questions to the KCI Aviation Department.

In a cleansing ritual known as ablution, Muslims are required to wash their feet before praying to Allah five times a day. They often complain that public restroom sinks do not accommodate their needs. Floor-level basins make it easier for them to perform their foot-washing ritual.

The Council on American-Islamic Relations has pressed government agencies and businesses to install the foot basins in restrooms.

The controversial Muslim lobby group advises employers to allow Muslim workers time to perform both the washing ritual and prayer, which "is usually about 15 minutes," according to a pamphlet CAIR publishes called, "An Employer's Guide to Islamic Religious Practices."

It is sad that many government agencies, business, and schools are catering to Muslim insistence that public institutions provide for their religious needs. This demand that American society accommodates to Islamic religious practices is an evidence that what is happening in Europe is beginning to happen in America.

America is an open society where every individual can practice his or her religion. People in this country are also free not practice any religion if they so desire. However, discriminating against blind people and their seeing-eye dogs on religious grounds violates American principles and laws.

If Christians had demanded the Kansas City International Airport to provide for their religious needs, there would be an uproar in Kansas City and the ACLU would be all over the airport authority with threats of lawsuits.

Where is the public outcry for what is happening in Kansas City? And where is the public outcry in Minneapolis over cab drivers’ refusal to carry passengers accompanied by seeing-eye dogs? Maybe a lot of people are quiet because it is an evil time (Amos 5:13).

Where is the ACLU? They are not involved in this issue because Christians did not make the request for foot-washing basins.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: ACLU, Kansas City, Muslims,

Old Scrolls Reveals Ancient Writing

The National Geographic News is reporting that an ancient Christian prayer book contains an erased commentary on the works of Aristotle. The news report says in part:

At first glance, the manuscript appears to be a medieval Christian prayer book. But on the same pages as the prayers, experts using a high-tech imaging system have discovered commentary likely written in the third century A.D. on a work written around 350 B.C. by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.

The discovery is the third ancient text to emerge from the layers of writing on the much reused pages. In 2002 researchers had uncovered writings by the mathematician Archimedes and the fourth-century B.C. politician Hyperides.

Last year one of the pages was found to contain a famous work by Archimedes about buoyancy that had previously been known only from an incomplete Latin translation.

Project director William Noel, curator of manuscripts at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, called the latest discovery a "sensational find."

According to the scholars working on the translation of the Greek text, the text may deal with Aristotle’s theory of classification.

The Greek text was probably copied from papyrus scrolls into the parchment. Papyrus was a form of paper or writing material made from papyrus reeds. Parchments were thin leaves made of processed animal skins that were used for writing. Parchment was very expensive and thus it was reused after the old writing was washed out. The process of rewriting new text on used parchments is called palimpsesting.

The article published in the National Geographic News provides a good discussion on the reuse and rewriting of parchments. To read the complete article, click here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Aristotle, Papyrus, Parchment, Scrolls

Lost Kings of the Bible

The National Geographical Channel will present “Lost Kings of the Bible” on Sunday, May 6, 2007, at 10 p.m. Eastern and Pacific, 9:00 p.m. Central. The program deals with the reign of King David and whether or not David was a real person.

The following is a short description of the content of “Lost Kings of the Bible” provided by the
National Geographical Channel:

Are two of the most famous kings of the Bible - King David and King Solomon - mythical heroes or made of flesh and blood? Jews, Christians, and Muslims have all chronicled the fantastic lives of these kings but skeptics have historically dismissed the stories for their lack of proof. Now, in Lost Kings of the Bible, the National Geographic Channel explores the groundbreaking new evidence that may provide answers to these questions.

The new evidence mentioned above is the Tel Dan Inscription. Scholars agree that the Tel Dan Inscription mentions “the house of David” and gives evidence to the historicity of David. This is a program worth watching.

To watch a brief video of “Lost Kings of the Bible,” click here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

UPDATE: Jim West has a post about the “Lost Kings of the Bible.” In his post he has comments from Eric H. Cline and Aren Maeir who are participants in the program. Both of them agree that the program is balanced and gives a fair presentation of the scholarly debate about David and Solomon. I specially recommend that you read Cline’s comment.

UPDATE II: I have written a post reviewing the issues discussed in the program. Read "The Lost Kings of the Bible: A Review."

Tags: Archaeology, David, Solomon, Tel Dan Inscription

Modern Christians Martyrs

This is a follow-up to the story about the three Christians killed in Turkey.

The three Christians who were martyred in Turkey last week were horribly tortured for three hours prior to being killed, Christian Today has learned, as details continue to emerge.

According to the Washington-DC based human rights group International Christian Concern, the three were put through a horrific ordeal which included multiple stabbings before finally being killed.

An ICC statement tells: “As difficult and sorrowful as it is to learn more, we believe that we must expose the truly hellish nature of this attack for what it is.”

On Easter Sunday, five of the killers had been to a service that one of the victims, Pastor Necati, had arranged in the city of Malatya. The men were known to the believers as “seekers”.

These young men, one of whom is the son of a mayor in the Province of Malatya, are part of a tarikat, or a group of “faithful believers” in Islam, ICC has learned.

Read the complete story by clicking here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Christians, Muslims, Persecution

The Samaritans and the Passover

IN THE NEWS

The following article was published in The Guardian of London on May 1, 2007:

Ancient Sect Marks Passover Sacrifice

MT. GERIZIM, West Bank (AP) - Dressed in white and spattered in blood, members of the tiny Samaritan sect gathered until the early hours of Tuesday for one of the Holy Land's most colorful religious ceremonies - the nighttime Passover sacrifice.

The entire Samaritan community, which totals just over 700 people, was present for the sacrifice at the sect's holiest place, the West Bank hilltop of Mt. Gerizim, near the city of Nablus.

Like the Jewish holiday of Passover, which was celebrated in early April, the Samaritan holiday marks the Israelite exodus from Egypt as recounted in the Old Testament. The Samaritans practice a religion closely linked to Judaism and venerate a version of the Old Testament, but are not Jews, and have a different religious calendar.

The sect's high priest opened the ceremony with a prayer in the Samaritan tongue, a dialect of ancient Hebrew. Then ritual slaughterers killed sheep, skinned them, and roasted them in large ovens. According to tradition, the meat must be ready in the middle of the night - the time that the Angel of Death killed the Egyptian firstborn in the biblical story - and the Samaritans eat it in haste along with unleavened bread, emulating the ancient Israelites.

Named for Samaria, a region in the northern West Bank, the Samaritans believe themselves to be the remnants of Israelites exiled from the Holy Land by the Assyrians in 722 B.C. They are probably best known for the parable of the Good Samaritan in the New Testament's Book of Luke.

In the fourth and fifth centuries, the Samaritan population is thought to have topped 1.5 million, but religious persecution and economic hardship nearly erased it by the early 20th century. Half live in the West Bank, and the other half live in the Israeli city of Holon, near Tel Aviv.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Passover, Samaritans

The Book of Isaiah and Zionism

An article published in Israel Today gives a very interesting perspective on the book of Isaiah. The article reads in part:

People often maintain that the Old Testament, in contrast to the New Testament, is defined by a Debit and Credit system of laws. But that is simply not true.

One example of this is the book of Isaiah. Modern theologians have invented the Deutero-Isaiah theory, which claims that the second part of Isaiah was written later than the first by another author. Their works were later compiled together under the name of the first author, the “real” Isaiah.

However, anyone who really looks at Isaiah in context will see clearly that there were not two of them who supposedly contradicted each other, but rather there was one writer who prophesied regarding two different periods of time.

In chapters 1 to 39, Isaiah prophecies about the destruction of the Temple (70 AD) and the banishment of the Jews from Israel (135 AD). Then from chapter 40 to the end, Isaiah prophecies about the end of the Jewish Diaspora when modern- day Zionism begins, fulfilled by the founding of the State of Israel.

The last statement of this article reveals the problem some people have in interpreting a biblical text. To say that Isaiah 1-39 contains prophecies about the banishment of Israel in 135 AD and that Isaiah 40-66 speaks about the Zionist movement of the last two centuries is a clear evidence of infusing the text with ideas that were never present in the mind of the original writer.

The correct interpretation of a biblical text is a difficult enterprise. The task of explaining the meaning of a text requires at least three very important hermeneutical principles:

1. The interpreter must make an attempt at understanding what the original writer meant to communicate to his primary audience.

2. The interpreter must discover what the primary audience or the recipients of the message understood the original writer to be communicating to them.

3. The interpreter must understand the simple meaning of the message that is actually conveyed by the words of the text.

As humans, we come to a biblical text with our set of biases and presuppositions that are mediated through our religious experiences and personal history. Thus, our cultural background, our religious experience, and our prior knowledge influence what we read and how we understand the biblical text.

The statement above does not meet the three criteria for a good interpretation of the biblical text and reflect the kind of bias that brings into the text an interpretation that was never intended by the writer or writers of the book of Isaiah.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Hermeneutics, Interpretation, Isaiah, Zionism

“It is I; do not be afraid.”

Many of you have noticed that I have not been blogging regularly for the past few weeks. The reason, as many of you have read before, is because I am directing the Self-Study at Northern Seminary and right now I am in the midst of editing the final Self-Study Report.

Those of you who are related to an academic institution know that the process of the Self-Study is time consuming and requires a lot of work from all those involved. However, when the administration and the faculty finish their jobs, the director of the Self-Study has to finish the work, write the final report, and prepare for the visiting team.

And this is where I come in. All the work is done, the report is finished but now it has to go through an editorial process. The report is about 200 pages long and it is now in its 5th draft. The date I set for myself for the completion of all the work is June 29, 2007. Until then, I will have to work very hard to prepare the final draft of the report. In addition, I have to prepare for classes, teach, read papers, grade exams, and attend committee meetings. I have said nothing about preparing sermons and doing the work of a pastor. Being a pastor requires hours of work and preparation.

One day, when the disciples saw Jesus walking on the water, they were afraid. Jesus identified himself to the disciples by saying: “It is I; do not be afraid.” At that, the disciples recognized Jesus and their fear was gone.

Unfortunately, I will not be able to be consistent with my blogging until after the Self-Study Report is completed and ready to be submitted. Until then, I will blog as often as I can. Until then, I may be late in answering some of your comments, but I will answer them eventually.

One day, if you subscribe to my blog, you will receive a new post dealing with some issues related to the Old Testament or maybe just a link to something I find interesting and want to share with you. When you receive that post, remember, that is just my way of saying: “It is I; do not be afraid.” And when you see that post, you will know that all is well with me.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Blogging