Pronouncing the Divine Name - Part 3

This is the third post on pronouncing the divine name. Read Part 1 here. Read part 2 here.

In his introduction to the article on YHWH in the Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, David Noel Freedman wrote (p. 5:500): “The correct pronunciation of the name was lost from Jewish tradition some time during the Middle Ages; late in the period of the Second Temple the name had come to be regarded as unspeakably holy and therefore unsuitable for use in public reading.”

The primary reason for this reluctance to pronounce the divine name is unknown. In the book of Deuteronomy, God’s name is called “this glorious and fearful name” (Deuteronomy 28:58). In Leviticus, the word “Hashem,” “the Name” stands for the Tetragrammaton (Leviticus 24:11). Probably it was the fear of profaning God’s name (Leviticus 22:2) that prompted Israel to restrict the use of the divine name.

Post-exilic books such as Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs do not use the Tetragrammaton. In the book of Daniel, a book that probably reflects the situation in the days of the Maccabees (2nd century B.C.), the name of God appears only in chapter 9.

The translators of the Septuagint followed the Jewish community’s tradition regarding the use of the divine name. The Septuagint translates the divine name as Kyrios, Lord. The writers of the New Testament followed Jewish practice and also used the word Kyrios to translate the divine name. A good example is seen in Joel 2:32:

MT: “And it shall come to pass that everyone who calls on the name of YHWH shall be saved.”

LXX: “And it shall come to pass that whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord (Kyrios) shall be saved.”

NT: “For, "Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord (Kyrios) shall be saved” (Romans 10:13).

In the New Testament the name “Lord,” the same word used in the Septuagint to translate the divine name YHWH, becomes a title used to identify Jesus Christ.

Josephus, writing in the Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94 A.D.) abstained from using the divine name. He wrote:

“Moses having now seen and heard these wonders that assured him of the truth of these promises of God, had no room left him to disbelieve them; he entreated him to grant him that power when he should be in Egypt; and besought him to vouchsafe him the knowledge of his own name; and, since he had heard and seen him, that he would also tell him his name, that when he offered sacrifice he might invoke him by such his name in his oblations. Whereupon God declared to him his holy name, which had never been discovered to men before; concerning which it is not lawful for me to say any more” (Ant. 2, 12, 4).

William Whiston, the translator of Antiquities added a note to Josephus’s statement. He wrote (p. 80) that the fear of pronouncing “the name with four letters, which of late we have been used falsely to pronounce Jehovah . . . is never, I think, heard of, till this passage of Josephus.” Josephus was also unwilling to write down the words of the Ten Commandments. Josephus wrote: “And they all heard a voice that came to all of them from above, insomuch that no one of these words escaped them, which Moses wrote on two tables; which it is not lawful for us to set down directly” (Ant. 3,5,4). According to Whiston, the fear to pronounce God’s name and the reluctance to write down the words of the Decalogue were taught to Josephus by the Pharisees.

The prohibition concerning the pronunciation of the divine name also appears in the Talmud. For instance, in the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Sanhedrin 90a is written:

All Israel have a portion in the world to come, for it is written, ‘thy people are all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that I may be glorified’ but the following have no portion therein: he who maintains that resurrection is not a biblical doctrine, the torah was not divinely revealed, and an epikoros [an adherent of the Epicurean philosophy]. R. Akiba added: one who reads uncanonical books. Also one who whispers [a charm] over a wound and says, I will bring none of these diseases upon thee which I brought upon the Egyptians: ‘for I am the Lord that healeth thee.’ Abba Saul says: also one who pronounces the divine name as it is spelt.

The fear of pronouncing the divine name may come from a possible misunderstanding of the meaning of the word נקב (naqab) in Leviticus 24:16. The New Revised Standard Version translates Leviticus 24:15-16 as follows: [15] And speak to the people of Israel, saying: Anyone who curses God shall bear the sin. [16] One who blasphemes the name of the LORD shall be put to death.”

The Septuagint, however, has a different understanding of the word. The Septuagint translates Leviticus 24:16 as follows: “And he that names the name of the Lord, let him die the death.” The Jewish Publication Society’s (TNK) translation of this verse follows the Septuagint: “[15] And to the Israelite people speak thus: Anyone who blasphemes his God shall bear his guilt; [16] if he also pronounces the name LORD, he shall be put to death.”

The text in which this legislation appears relates the story of a man whose mother was an Israelite and whose father was an Egyptian. This man was fighting with another man and in the process he blasphemed the name of God in a curse (Leviticus 24:10-16).

The NRSV translates Leviticus 24:11 as follows: “The Israelite woman's son blasphemed the Name in a curse.”

The TNK translates Leviticus 24:11 as follows: “The son of the Israelite woman pronounced the Name in blasphemy.”

Both translations render naqab as “blasphemy.” However, in Leviticus 26:16, the TNK translates the word naqab differently from the NRSV.

NRSV: “ One who blasphemes the name of the LORD shall be put to death.”

TNK: “if he also pronounces the name LORD, he shall be put to death.”

So, the issue in question is: does the word naqab mean “to blaspheme” or “to pronounce”? I believe that the proper interpretation of this text determines whether the divine name can be pronounced. According to J. Scharbert, the root naqab appears in most Semitic languages and it means “pierce, make a hole.” The word also appears in Akkadian with the meaning of “deflower.” However, the word never appears with the meaning “to pronounce.” Scharbet wrote (p. 552):

In Lev. 24:11,15f. naqab takes on a different nuance in conjunction with the name of Yahweh. Because the verb parallels the piel of qll, it is usually translated “blaspheme (the name of Yahweh).” The different legal consequences (“bear the sin” in the sense of “have to live with the curse conjured up by the act” vs. ‘be put to death"’ show that nqb denotes a more serious offense than qillel. “Cursing” refers to careless derogatory speech concerning God; “blaspheming” refers to deliberate slanderous speech concerning Yahweh, with explicit emphasis on Yahweh’s name. It is unlikely that this passage already interprets the prohibition against wrongful use of Yahweh’s name (Ex. 20:7; Dt. 5:11) as an absolute prohibition against any use whatever of the name. The text refers rather to a negative “branding” of the name of Yahweh.

God said: “I am YHWH, this is my name” (Isaiah 42:8). God also said: “This is my name forever, the name by which I am to be remembered from generation to generation” (Exodus 3:15). Giving his name to Moses and to all Israel was an act of divine grace which demonstrated how serious God was in his desire to establish a personal relationship with his people. As Fretheim wrote in his commentary on Exodus:

Giving the name entails a certain kind of relationship; it opens up the possibility of, indeed admits a desire for, a certain intimacy in relationship. A relationship without a name inevitably means some distance; naming the name is necessary for closeness. Naming makes true encounter and communication possible. Naming entails availability. By giving the name, God becomes accessible to people. God and people can now meet one another and there can be address on the part of both parties.

So, I do not believe there is a biblical admonition against pronouncing God’s personal name. But, should Christians pronounce God’s name? Since God revealed his name, a name by which he wants to be remembered from generation to generation, I believe Christians should be free to use God’s personal name with respect and reverence. However, since we do not know how to pronounce the Tetragrammaton, the use of “Yahweh” may suffice. The name “Jehovah” should be avoided because such a name does not exist. However, people will continue to use it in traditional hymns; I prefer not to use it.

I seldom use God’s name in preaching; in this I follow the biblical tradition and use either “Lord” or “God.” I generally use ‘Yahweh” or “YHWH” when writing or teaching. In using the divine name, however, I remember the principle established by the Apostle Paul. Since my Jewish brothers and sisters may be offended by the use of the divine name, I do not use God’s name in their presence for I do not want to offend them.

REFERENCES;

Freedman, David N. “Yhwh.” Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vo. 5. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986.

Fretheim, Terence. Exodus. Interpretation. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1991

Scharbert, J. “Naqab.” Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vo. 9. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998

Whiston, William. The Life and Works of Flavius Josephus. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, n.d.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Divine Name, Leviticus 24, Lord, Yahweh, YHWH

Pronouncing the Divine Name - Part 2

In my last post (part 1 here), I discussed what I perceived to be the purpose of Liturgiam authenticam: a return of the Catholic Church to its historical traditions.

One aspect of this desire to remain faithful to traditional Catholic faith and practice is the church’s use of the divine name as it appears in the Nova Vulgate Editio. The directive to translate the Tetragrammaton YHWH by a word equivalent to the Latin Dominus and the Greek Kyrios reflects the desire to maintain the ancient traditions of the church.

The revelation of the divine name to Moses on Mount Sinai reflects God’s desire to enter into a special relationship with Israel. The holy and sovereign God, the creator of the universe, in an act of sheer grace, wanted to enter the history of a nation and deal with a people who would be entrusted to carry out his will in the world.

In order to establish this relationship, God wanted to make himself known to Israel and this revelation of himself to the people came through Moses. Thus, on Mount Sinai God appeared to Moses and commissioned him to return to Egypt and bring the people out of their oppression.

Until the time of Moses, the people of Israel and the chosen leaders of the people did not know the name of God. In the past, God had appeared to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as El Shaddai, God Almighty (Exodus 6:3). This fact is attested in God’s words to Abraham: “When Abram was ninety-nine years old, the LORD appeared to Abram, and said to him, “I am El Shaddai; walk before me, and be blameless” (Genesis 17:1).

In his encounter with the God of the ancestors, the identity of the God who was sending him back to Egypt became an item of concern to Moses. Moses said to God: “If I come to the Israelites and say to them, ‘The God of your ancestors has sent me to you,’ and they ask me, ‘What is his name?’ what shall I say to them?” (Exodus 3:13).

Moses was aware that the people of Israel would be reluctant to follow an unknown God. Thus, the revelation of the divine name would establish a lasting relationship between God and Israel: Israel would be God’s people and God would be Israel’s God.

So, in response to Moses’ request, God said to Moses: “I AM WHO I AM.” Then God commanded Moses: “Thus you shall say to the Israelites, ‘I AM has sent me to you’” (Exodus 3:14).

In addition, God identified himself with the God of the ancestors. God said to Moses: “Say to the Israelites, ‘YHWH, the God of your fathers-- the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob-- has sent me to you.’ This is my name forever, the name by which I am to be remembered from generation to generation” (Exodus 3:15).

The origin, meaning, and theological significance of God’s name, YHWH, has produced a vast amount of literature but no definite consensus has been reached by scholars. The name YHWH appears more than 6,700 times in the Hebrew Bible (according to Charles Halton, the name appears 6,828 times). The name appears in every book of the Hebrew Bible except Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. The fact that the God of Israel had a name implies that Israel recognized that its God was a personal being who wished to be known by his people and who desired to distinguish himself from the gods of the other nations.

When the Masoretes added vowels to the consonantal text circa the 10th century A.D., they added the vowels of Adonai to the Tetragrammaton to indicate that the name Adonai should be pronounced instead of YHWH. In 1518, Petrus Galatinus, the confessor of Pope Leo X, proposed that the divine name should be transliterated as Jehovah and this hybrid name became popular in religious writings. The name “Jehovah” appears in the King James Version in Exodus 6:3, Psalm 83:18, and Isaiah 12:2; 26:4. The name also appears in three other passages where it is combined with other elements (see Genesis 22:14; Exodus 17:15; Judges 6:24). The name Jehovah is used in the American Standard Version of 1901 to translate the divine name. However, Jehovah should not be used in theological writing nor in the liturgy because Jehovah is not the name of God.

The divine name appears in the Hebrew Bible in abbreviated form in hundreds of names of individuals such as Jeremiah, Abijah, Jehonathan, Jehoshaphat, and many others. The name of God also appears to designate holy places:

“And Abraham called the name of the place, ‘YHWH Will Provide’” (Genesis 22:14).

“And Moses built an altar and named it, ‘YHWH Is My Banner’” (Exodus 17:15).

“So Gideon built an altar to YHWH and called it ‘YHWH Is Peace’” (Judges 6:24).

“Jerusalem will be called ‘YHWH Our Righteousness’” (Jeremiah 33:16).

The name YHWH appears in the Mesha Stele (9th century B.C.E.), in an ostracon discovered at Kuntilet ‘Ajrud (8th century B.C.E.), in the Arad Letters (6th century B.C.E.), in the Lachish Letters(6th century B.C.E.). The name also appears in Syria and in Egypt.

The divine name YHWH was also used in the liturgy of Israel. In a text that reveals the nature of the God of Israel, the divine name appears twice: “YHWH, YHWH, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin” (Exodus 34:6-7).

The divine name was used in prayer by people everywhere: “Seth also had a son, and he named him Enosh. At that time men began to call on the name of YHWH” (Genesis 4:26). The name of God was invoked at the time of worship: “I will sacrifice a thank offering to you and call on the name of YHWH” (Psalm 116:17). Foreigners will pray to YHWH: “Then will I purify the lips of the peoples, that all of them may call on the name of YHWH and serve him shoulder to shoulder” (Zephaniah 3:9). The remnant of Israel will also call on God’s name: “This third I will bring into the fire; I will refine them like silver and test them like gold. They will call on my name and I will answer them; I will say, ‘They are my people,’ and they will say, ‘YHWH is our God’” (Zechariah 13:9).

I argue that it was in the liturgy of Israel that the name of God was celebrated. When the people came to the temple they would say: “Oh, magnify YHWH with me, and let us exalt his name together!” (Psalm 34:3). In worship, the people proclaimed: “YHWH is king” (Psalm 93:1). In times of need the people would cry: “Arise, O YHWH! Save me” (Psalm 3:7). When the people were asked at the time of worship: “Who is the King of glory?” They would respond: “YHWH, strong and mighty, YHWH, mighty in battle” (Psalm 24:8).

So, the name of God was pronounced by the people of Israel in worship, prayer, and celebration because YHWH was the name of their God. God said: “I am YHWH, this is my name” (Isaiah 42:8).

When Moses descended Mount Sinai and returned to Egypt and the people asked him the name of the God who had appeared to him, Moses did not say: “His name is Adonai.” Moses could not say that Adonai appeared to him because Adonai was not the name of the God who appeared to him. His name was YHWH and to identify the God who sent him back to Egypt, Moses had to pronounce the divine name.

During the Second Temple period, the name of God was considered too holy to be pronounced in public and eventually, it was not even pronounced in the temple. For this reason, the correct pronunciation of God’s name was lost and forgotten.

This reluctance to pronounce God’s name is contrary to God’s will as expressed by God himself to Moses on Mount Sinai. When God revealed his name to Moses, God said: “Say to the Israelites, ‘YHWH, the God of your fathers-- the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob-- has sent me to you.’ This is my name forever, the name by which I am to be remembered from generation to generation” (Exodus 3:15).

This is God’s will concerning his name: that his name be remembered forever. God said to Moses: “This is my name forever, the name by which I am to be remembered from generation to generation.” God wanted to be remembered by his name from generation to generation. But today, no one knows how to pronounce God’s name. It is sad that the intimacy that God desired to have with his people when he revealed his name cannot be accomplished in its fulness. The revelation of the name began that relationship, but the name of God has been forgotten. Now, our relationship is with a God whose name is not known and if we follow the directives of Liturgiam authenticam, a God whose name cannot be pronounced.

In my next post I will discuss one of the reasons the name of God cannot be pronounced and whether Christians should pronounce God’s name.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Adonai, Yahweh, YHWH, Tetragrammaton

The Internet Was Down Today

I was planning to post my second article on pronouncing the divine name this morning. However, the Internet has been down all the today.

This problem demonstrates how dependent we have become on the Internet. I was unable to check my mail, read the news, or post my blog.

A few minutes ago, I was informed that the Internet is up again. I will post the second part of my article in the morning.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Pronouncing the Divine Name - Part 1

In a recent document titled “Liturgiam authenticam: On the Use of Vernacular Languages in the Publication of the Books of the Roman Liturgy,” the Vatican made the following statement concerning translation of the divine name when translating liturgical texts into vernacular languages: “in accordance with immemorial tradition, which indeed is already evident in the above-mentioned ‘Septuagint’ version, the name of almighty God expressed by the Hebrew tetragrammaton (YHWH) and rendered in Latin by the word Dominus, is to be rendered into any given vernacular by a word equivalent in meaning” (Liturgiam authenticam 41:c).

The document offers several reasons for this recommendation:

1. The translation should conform with traditional liturgical use.

2. The translation should follow the tradition received from the Fathers of the Church.

3. The translation should express the traditional Christological sense of the text.

4. The translation should manifest the unity and the inter-relatedness of the two Testaments.

5. The translation should be guided by the reading of the Nova Vulgata Editio whenever there are more than one possible translation of the biblical text.

6. Ancient versions of the Sacred Scriptures should be consulted, especially the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament.

7. The translation should reflect the history of interpretation as found in the citations of biblical texts in the writings of the Fathers of the Church.

8. The translation should reflect the biblical imagery found in Christian art and in the hymnody of the church.

The document in question reflects the desire of the Catholic Church to return to the traditions of the past and maintain the authentic liturgy of the church that was preserved in the Roman Missal.

In the deliberations of the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, the Council decided that the tradition of the Church should be preserved whole and intact. Liturgiam authenticam (# 4) states:

Clearly, the same vigilance is required for the safeguarding and the authentic development of the liturgical rites, the ecclesiastical traditions, and the discipline of the Latin Church, and in particular, of the Roman Rite. The same care must be brought also to the translation of the liturgical texts into vernacular languages. This is especially true as regards the Roman Missal, which will thus continue to be maintained as an outstanding sign and instrument of the integrity and unity of the Roman Rite.

In my view, the recommendation concerning the translation of the tetragrammaton should be understood in this context. Since the name “Yahweh” is a scholarly construct, the use of Yahweh in the liturgy of the Catholic Church departs from the traditional use of the divine name because it does not follow the historical traditions of the church. Neither the Septuagint, the Church Fathers, nor the Vulgate used the name “Yahweh.” For this reason, the Catholic Church believes that modern translations of liturgical texts should refrain from using this scholarly construct and return to the traditional ways of translating the divine name.

The view that the purpose of Liturgiam authenticam is to maintain traditional Catholic teaching is reinforced by a letter called “Letter to the Bishops’ Conferences on the ‘Name of God’” (Prot. N. 213/08/L). This letter is dated 29 June, 2008 and was signed by Francis Cardinal Arinze and Archbishop Albert Malcolm Ranjith. According to Paul Zalonski at Communio, the letter has the following directives:

1. In liturgical celebrations, in songs and prayers the name of God in the form of the tetragrammaton, YHWH is neither to be used or pronounced.

2. For the translation of the Biblical text in modern languages, destined for liturgical usage of the Church, what is already prescribed by n. 41 of the Instruction Liturgiam authenticam is to be followed; that is, the divine tetragrammaton is to be rendered by the equivalent of Adonai/Kyrios: “Lord”, “Signore”, “Seigneur”, “Herr”, “Señor”, etc.

3. In translating, in the liturgical context, texts in which are present, one after the other, either the Hebrew term Adonai or the tetragrammaton YHWH, Adonai is to be translated “Lord” and the form “God” is to be used for the tetragrammaton YHWH, similar to what happens in the Greek translation of the Septuagint and in the Latin translation of the Vulgate.

After listing these three directives, Zalonski wrote:

The cardinal and the archbishop explain in the first part of the letter the value of remaining faithful to the consistent teaching and tradition of the Church. Here one can say that in following this teaching Catholics have continuity of faith: legem credendi lex statuat supplicandi (often abbreviated by the bromide of lex orandi, lex crendendi). The implication of this teaching, therefore, has much to do with Christology, liturgical theology, catechetics and interfaith dialogue with our Jewish brothers and sisters. I think the final paragraph bears prayerful consideration because of the Church's objectivity:

Avoiding pronouncing the tetragrammaton of the name of God on the part of the Church has therefore its own grounds. Apart from a motive of a purely philological order, there is also that of remaining faithful to the Church's tradition, from the beginning, that the sacred tetragrammaton was never pronounced in the Christian context nor translated into any of the languages into which the Bible was translated.

Several other bloggers have commented on the implications of Liturgiam authenticam. Some of these bloggers are Iyov, Fritz Voll, Kevin Edgecomb, Bosco Peters, John Hobbins, Charles Halton, David Hymes, Doug Chaplin, Jim West, and Rocco Palmo. Michael Gilligan has a good study of the use of the tetragrammaton in the Bible and liturgy.

Tomorrow I will discuss the use of the divine name in the Bible and in liturgy.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Yahweh, Liturgiam authenticam, Liturgy

Pagan Temple Found in Israel

The National Geographic is reporting that the ruins of a pagan temple was discovered in Israel. The temple was located in the ancient city of Zippori, a place located between the Sea of Galilee and the Mediterranean.

According to archaeologists, the temple was discovered under the ruins of a Christian church. The temple measures about 40-by-78 feet (12-by-24 meters).

Read the new release by visiting the National Geographic web page.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Zippori

Psalm 116:15: Is Death Precious or Grievous?

In a previous post, I discussed Psalm 116:15 and which English translation correctly reflects the idea the psalmist was trying to express to his readers.

In response to my post, Bzephyr, at agaphseis wrote a post, “Is death precious or grievous to God?” in which he studies Psalm 116 and how other versions have translated verse 15. Bzephyr wrote a good article and I invite you to read his post.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Death, Psalm 116

Cyrus the Great: A Liberator or a Despot?

During its history, the people of Israel had some form of contact with many kings and rulers of the empires and nations of the Ancient Near East. The kings and rulers of these nations were either friends or enemies, oppressors or allies of Israel. One of them, Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, was seen as a liberator of Israel and the one who allowed the people to return to their ancestral home. Deutero-Isaiah called Cyrus “a shepherd” (Isaiah 44:28) and “the Lord’s anointed,” his Messiah (Isaiah 45:1). Jerome, in his commentary on Isaiah called Cyrus a type of Christ.

An article published by Spiegel Online begins by praising Cyrus and his declaration of 539 B.C. as follows: “A 2,500-year-old cuneiform document ceremoniously displayed in a glass case at the United Nations in New York is revered as an ‘ancient declaration of human rights.’” The cuneiform document referred by the writer is the Cyrus Cylinder, a document which contains Cyrus’ proclamation that allowed the captive nations in the Babylonian empire to return to their homes.

According to the book of Ezra, the following proclamation was made throughout all of Cyrus’ kingdom:

“Thus says Cyrus king of Persia: The LORD, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and he has charged me to build him a house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah. 3 Whoever is among you of all his people, may his God be with him, and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judah, and rebuild the house of the LORD, the God of Israel- he is the God who is in Jerusalem. 4 And let each survivor, in whatever place he sojourns, be assisted by the men of his place with silver and gold, with goods and with beasts, besides freewill offerings for the house of God that is in Jerusalem” (Ezra 1:1-4).

The version that appears in the Cyrus Cylinder contains a different reading:

All the kings of the entire world from the Upper to the Lower Sea, those who are seated in throne rooms, (those who) live in other [types of buildings as well as] all the kings of the West land living in tents, brought their heavy tributes and kissed my feet in Babylon. (As to the region) from . . . as far as Ashur and Susa, Agade, Eshnunna, the towns of Zamban, Me-Turnu, Der as well as the region of the Gutians, I returned to (these) sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris, the sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time, the images which (used) to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I (also) gathered all their former inhabitants and returned (to them) their habitations.

The article in Spiegel Online, however, portrays Cyrus as “a despot who had his enemies tortured.” According to the article, “The notion that Cyrus introduced concepts of human rights is nonsense.”

The article continues:

Hanspeter Schaudig, an Assyriologist at the University of Heidelberg in the southwestern Germany, says that he too would be hard-pressed to see the ancient king as a pioneer when it comes to equality and human dignity. Indeed, Cyrus demanded that his subjects kiss his feet.

The ruler was responsible for a 30-year war that consumed the Orient and forced millions to pay heavy taxes. Anyone who refused stood to have his nose and ears cut off. Those sentenced to death were buried up to their heads in sand, left to be finished off by the sun.

This article seeks to reverse the positive picture of Cyrus portrayed by ancient historians by claiming that his proclamation was “a brilliant piece of propaganda.”

No one would say that Cyrus was the ideal king but there is historical evidence that Cyrus was indeed a benevolent king who, for political reasons, allowed many conquered nations to return to their homes.

Read and evaluate the writer’s view of Cyrus. As for me, I have a more positive view of Cyrus than the writer of the article published by Spiegel Online.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Cyrus, Cyrus Cylinder

China: No Worship Services During the Olympics

The Baptist Press is reporting that China is forcing unregistered churches to refrain from celebrating worship services for three months. The following is an excerpt from the Baptist Press:

WASHINGTON (BP)--The Chinese government has forced pastors of unregistered churches to pledge there will be no worship services at their congregations' meeting sites during a three-month period surrounding the Summer Olympics, a human rights group reported Aug. 13.

The pastors also were required to promise they would not organize or attend any religious gatherings that were not approved by the Communist regime, according to China Aid Association, an American-based organization that monitors religious persecution in the world's most populous country.

The report provided additional evidence of ongoing religious repression in China, reinforcing critics' claims that the regime has not lived up to its commitment to improve its human rights record when Beijing was named in 2001 as the host city for this year's Olympic Games. Unregistered congregations, which are not approved by the government, are among the religious groups under pressure from the Chinese regime.

China Aid Association reported on Beijing's latest strong-arm tactic and provided an English translation of the document pastors were coerced to sign.

The form included a statement committing each signer to "refrain from organizing and joining illegal gatherings and refrain from receiving donations, sermons and preaching from" foreign religious entities. It also said "activities at the gathering sites will be shut down for three months (July 15 -- October 15)."

Read the complete text by visiting the Baptist Press online.

The Chinese promised many things in order to be selected for the 2008 Olympics. Now that they are the host nation, they are reneging on some of their promises. Christians everywhere must pray for our brothers and sisters in China.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: China,

Empress Faustina

Archaeology Magazine is reporting that archaeologists have uncovered the head of the Roman empress Faustina, wife of the emperor Antoninus Pius, who ruled from A.D. 138 to 161.

Below is a picture of head. Read the article and see other pictures of the discovery by visiting the web page of Archaeology Magazine.

Empress Faustina

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Empress Faustina

Psalm 116:15: The Death of a Saint

A few days ago, I conducted the funeral of Mr. Paul Klec, a wonderful Christian man who died at the age of 90. Paul was a veteran of World War II and a member of the church where I serve as the pastor. Paul was a member of the church since it was organized in 1929. At the funeral, I read Psalm 116:15: “Precious in the sight of the LORD is the death of his saints.”

The words of the psalmist are amazing: “Precious in the sight of the LORD is the death of his saints.” Why is the death of God’s people precious in his sight? Only someone who has a biblical understanding of death can say with confidence that the death of a believer is precious to God.

Such a view of death is not shared by many people. The author of the book of Hebrews said that Jesus took upon himself human nature and died on the cross in order to “free those who all their lives were held in slavery by the fear of death” (Hebrews 2:14-15). The fear of dying, also called “necrophobia,” or “thanatophobia,” is a problem that affects many people, at times even impacting the quality of a person’s everyday life.

The reason some people fear death is because they think they are unprepared to die. Others feel regret for not accomplishing established goals and thus feel that they have lived a sad and meaningless life. Much of the fear of death comes from the fact that people do not know what awaits them on the other side of life. At the time of death people question whether there is a God and whether they are prepared to give an account of their lives when they meet their Creator.

The words of the psalmist reflect the view of someone who was not afraid to die. As another psalmist wrote: “Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for [God is] with me” (Psalm 23:4).

The writer of Psalm 116 had experienced the love and faithfulness of God in his life. Because the God of the psalmist was a God of life, the end of his life was not something of small importance to God.

Most translations render the word יקר (yāqār) as “precious.” This is how the word is translated in several places in the Hebrew Bible. For instance, in 2 Samuel 12:30 the word is used to describe the precious stones in the crown of a king. In Psalm 36:8 the word is used to describe how precious is God’s hesed, God’s faithfulness. In Proverbs 3:15 the word is used to affirm that wisdom is more precious than rubies. Thus, the death of God’s faithful people, his hasidim, is very special to God, more valuable than precious stones.

A few translations translate verse 15 in a way that removes the idea that the psalmist was trying to convey to his readers. For instance, the New English Translation (NET) translates verse 15 as follows: “The LORD values the lives of his faithful followers.” This translation misses the point because the emphasis of the psalmist is not on life but on death.

The New American Bible (NAB) translates the verse as follows: “Too costly in the eyes of the LORD is the death of his faithful.” Although this translation comes close to the idea expressed by the psalmist, the English word “costly” implies that the death of a saint is pricey.

The Tanak translates verse 15 as follows: “The death of His faithful ones is grievous in the LORD’s sight.” This translation gives the impression that the death of a believer is heinous, dreadful, or terrible to God, an idea that is the opposite of what the psalmist is saying.

The words of the psalmist teach that the death of a godly person is important to God because when a godly person dies something special happens. These words can be a source of great comfort for those who believe in God. These words teach us that death should not be a fearful experience and that God will not abandon his people in their hour of greatest need.

These words also sustain believers when they face that dark and fearful place, the valley of the shadow of death: “Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for [God is] with me” (Psalm 23:4).

When Paul Klec died, his death notification carried a beautiful poem:

I’d like the memory of me

to be a happy one.

I’d like to leave an afterglow

of smiles when life is done.

I’d like to leave an echo

whispering softly down the ways

of happy times and laughing times

of bright and sunny days.

I’d like the tears of those who grieve,

to dry before the sun

of happy memories that I leave

when life is done.

“Precious in the sight of the LORD is the death of his saints.”

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Death, Psalm 116

The Bible’s Buried Secrets

On November 18, PBS will air “The Bible’s Buried Secrets,” the controversial program that seeks to present a new theory of how the Bible was written. According to comments made by those who are critical of the program, the documentary will present a minimalist view of the Hebrew Bible. The following conclusions will be presented in the documentary:

• The Old Testament was written in the sixth century BC and hundreds of authors contributed.

• Abraham, Sarah and their offspring did not exist.

• There is no archaeological evidence of the Exodus.

• The Israelites were actually Canaanites.

PBS has released the trailer below for the two-hour television special.




People who have been following the minimalist/maximalist discussion probably will learn nothing new from this program. I am sure the documentary will present the same arguments that have been discussed before. Those people who have a low view of the Bible probably will be re-affirmed once again in their view that the Bible presents an invented history of Israel.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Bible, Nova, PBS

The Girl of His Dreams

The Girl of His Dreams

A guy named Adam Pacitti is looking for the girl of his dreams.

This is how Adam described their first encounter:

I crept towards her, grasping the Old Testament in my hand. I lifted it up above my head with the intention of striking her but as I did so she turned to face me. I froze. In front of me was the most beautiful girl that I've ever seen, ever. I couldn't believe what I was seeing (and still can't, to be honest) as I stood there motionless looking her up and down. She was incredible. She was gorgeous. She was absolutely, genuinely perfect. She smiled at me and said "Hello, I'm so glad you're here", and then kissed me.

How romantic! Meeting the girl of his dreams with the Old Testament in his hand. Above is a drawing of the girl of Adam’s dreams. Now, for you to find out the reason he was planning to strike her with the Old Testament, you will have to read the rest of the story.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Love, Romance

The Propagation of a Myth

Myths and rumors are hard to kill. Take, for instance, this story that appeared in Money Week:

According to the Old Testament, during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar, an ounce of gold bought 350 loaves of bread. If an ounce of gold today is about £450 and a loaf of bread about a pound, depending on where you shop, you can see that its purchasing power has been maintained. Yet in the UK, measured in bread, we’ve seen our pound’s purchasing power decline quite substantially - even if you shop in Gregg’s.

This story, as it is being told by people selling gold, is a myth. I have written a long post here discrediting this story, but the story keeps being circulated as a fact.

Cavit Emptor: if you are planning to invest in gold, do not allow this story to influence you in your decision.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Gold, Myth

Sedigiti

According to the Hebrew Bible, some of the descendants of the giants had six fingers and six toes: “And there was again war at Gath, where there was a man of great stature, who had six fingers on each hand, and six toes on each foot, twenty-four in number, and he also was descended from the giants” (2 Samuel 21:20).

People with six fingers or six toes were called “sedigiti.” According to Pliny, Natural History, xi. 43, the daughters of Horatius as well as the poet Volcatius were sedigiti

Today, a man in India has 6 fingers on each hand and seven toes on each foot. The picture below shows the hands and the feet of the Indian sedigiti.





Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Giants, Sedigiti

The Problem of Fake Degrees

In a previous post, I wrote about bogus academic degrees for sale. That post included a link to an article published in the Chicago Tribune about bogus degrees sold by St. Regis University. At the end of my post, I asked the following question: “I wonder if some of the degrees sold by St. Regis University were in the area of biblical studies.”

Now, I have the answer and the answer is YES.

According to the US Government, Exhibit A, 197 degrees in religion and theology were sold by St. Regis University. According to the report, the following degrees were sold in the field of religion and theology:

Associate Degree 3

Bachelor’s Degree 51

Master’s Degree 51

Doctor’s Degree 77

Professor’s Degree 5

In addition to these, 23 degrees were sold in the area of Religious Education and 16 degrees in the area of Religious Healing.

These numbers reflect a huge problem faced by religious institutions. Most of them will never check the transcript of a candidate because they believe ministers would never lie about their credentials. Even if religious institutions would check the credentials of candidates, many of them would not be able to discover that St. Regis University was a diploma mill.

Now, I worry about those five professors who bought their degrees from St. Regis University. Are they teaching in Christian schools? How about those 77 doctors with (false) university degrees? Are they also teaching?

In a few minutes, I will be going to my dentist. According to that same report, 10 people bought fake degrees in dentistry. Is my doctor one of them? Perish the thought!

For the ladies reading this post: 36 persons bought their ob-gyn degrees from St. Regis University.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Fake Degrees, Scams

A Canaanite Warrior

A British Museum’s archaeological team working in Sidon has discovered a grave containing skeletal remains of a Canaanite warrior. According to archaeologists, the remains date back to 2000 B.C.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Canaanites

Do You Have A Bogus Degree?

You may have a bogus degree if your degree is from St. Regis University.

According to a new report published in the Chicago Tribune, bogus degrees were sold in areas such as oncology, dentistry, and engineering.

Some of the people who bought bogus degree worked for NASA, the military, the Social Security Administration, and the National Endowment for the Humanities.

I wonder if some of the degrees sold by St. Regis University were in the area of biblical studies.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Scams

Understanding Psalm 17:14

Recently, a reader asked me to explain Psalm 17:14 and whether the ones who receive God’s blessings are the wicked or the righteous. Since any explanation of this passage requires discussion and exegesis of the Hebrew text and an evaluation of how the translations have approached the text, I have decided to write a short post trying to make sense of the words of the psalmist.

In order to understand the meaning and the message of the text, I will cite the original Hebrew and how different versions translated the verse.

The Hebrew text reads:

ממתים ידך יהוה ממתים מחלד חלקם בחיים וצפינך תמלא בטנם ישבעו בנים והניחו יתרם לעולליהם

Here is how some of the English Bibles have translated the text:

The Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSV): “With Your hand, LORD, save me from men, from men of the world, whose portion is in this life: You fill their bellies with what You have in store, their sons are satisfied, and they leave their surplus to their children.”

English Standard Version (ESV): “from men by your hand, O LORD, from men of the world whose portion is in this life. You fill their womb with treasure; they are satisfied with children, and they leave their abundance to their infants.”

God’s Word to the Nations (GWN): “With your power rescue me from mortals, O LORD, from mortals who enjoy their inheritance only in this life. You fill their bellies with your treasure. Their children are satisfied with it, and they leave what remains to their children.”

King James Version (KJV): “From men which are thy hand, O LORD, from men of the world, which have their portion in this life, and whose belly thou fillest with thy hid treasure: they are full of children, and leave the rest of their substance to their babes.”

The Septuagint (LXX): “because of the enemies of thine hand: O Lord, destroy them from the earth; scatter them in their life, though their belly has been filled with thy hidden treasures: they have been satisfied with uncleanness, and have left the remnant of their possessions to their babes.”

New International Version (NIV): “O LORD, by your hand save me from such men, from men of this world whose reward is in this life. You still the hunger of those you cherish; their sons have plenty, and they store up wealth for their children.”

New Revised Standard Version (NRSV): “from mortals-- by your hand, O LORD-- from mortals whose portion in life is in this world. May their bellies be filled with what you have stored up for them; may their children have more than enough; may they leave something over to their little ones.”

Jewish Publication Society (Tanak): “from men, O LORD, with Your hand, from men whose share in life is fleeting. But as to Your treasured ones, fill their bellies. Their sons too shall be satisfied, and have something to leave over for their young.”

It is clear from these different translations of verse 14 that scholars differ in their understanding of what the psalmist was trying to communicate to his readers. There are two important issues of interpretation that make the proper translation of verse 14 difficult.

First, in order to solve the double occurrence of the expression “from men” in the verse, many scholars have decided to emend the text. For instance, Hans-Joachim Kraus (p. 244) translates v. 14 as follows:

May a cruel death at your hand, O Yahweh,
a cruel death put an end to their portion in life!

Michael Dahood (p. 93) translates the verse as follows:

Slay them with your hand, O Yahweh,
slay them from the earth,
Make them perish from among the living!

I do not think it is necessary to emend the text to gain the proper meaning of the text. If one takes v. 14 as a continuation of the argument advanced in v. 13, the text makes sense without radical emendation:

13 Arise, O LORD! confront them, overthrow them! Deliver my life from the wicked by your sword, 14 [deliver me] from men by your hand, O LORD, from men whose portion in life is of the world.

Thus the psalmist is asking the Lord himself to deliver him from the power of the wicked. The expression “deliver me” in v. 13 should also be understood at the beginning of v. 14.

Another possibility is to take the duplicate occurrence of the expression “from men” in its consonantal form and repoint the two words as a Hiphil Participle from מות (kill). This alternative follows the translation present in the Septuagint. This is the view taken by Dahood (see above) and Craigie (p. 160):

Kill them by your hand O Lord,
Kill them from the world.

Both options make good sense in the context of the whole psalm. I prefer to retain the reading of the Hebrew Bible without reponting the text.

The second issue that complicates the translation of verse 14 is whose belly is being filled by God. The decision of whose belly is being filled depends on whether the translation follows the Kethib or the Qere.

Translators that adopt the Kethib understand that the belly that is filled is the belly of the wicked:

“May their belly be filled with what thou hast stored up for them” (NRSV).

Translators who adopt the Qere, understand that the belly that is filled is the belly of the righteous:

“But as to Your treasured ones, fill their bellies” (TNK).

God’s people are called “Your treasured ones” (וצפונך), thus the translation that sees God blessing the righteous may be a better understanding of the text. Thus, Psalm 17:13-14 should be translated as follows:

13 Arise, O LORD! confront them, overthrow them! Deliver my life from the wicked by your sword, 14 [deliver me] from men by your hand, O LORD, from men whose portion in life is of the world. As for your treasured ones, you will fill their belly. Their children will have more than enough.

Psalm 17 is the prayer of an individual aware of his righteousness before God who was being oppressed and persecuted by wicked people. This individual approached God in prayer and asked to be vindicated. The psalmist asked for protection against wicked people whose reward is in this world. In his declaration of praise, the psalmist recognized that God blesses the righteous and provides for their children.

REFERENCES:

Peter C. Craigie. Psalms 1-50. Waco: Word Books, 1983.

Dahood, Micahel. Psalms 1-50. New York: Doubleday, 1965.

Kraus, Hans-Joachim . Psalms 1-59: A Continental Commentary. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Psalm 17

The World’s Second Oldest Joke

The world’s second oldest joke is an Egyptian joke about King Snofru. Here is the joke:

“How do you entertain a bored pharaoh? You sail a boatload of young women dressed only in fishing nets down the Nile and urge the pharaoh to go catch a fish.”

The world’s oldest recorded joke has been traced back to 1900 BC. It is a Sumerian joke.

To read the world’s oldest recorded joke, click here.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tag: Jokes

Gedaliah ben Pashhur

Gedaliah's Bulla

There are five persons named Gedaliah in the Hebrew Bible. In my article on “Gedaliah,” published in The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible D-H (Nashville: Abingdon Press 2007) 2:530, I identified Gedaliah # 3 as the son of Pashhur and one of the officials of Zedekiah who conspired to accuse and imprison the prophet Jeremiah (Jeremiah 38:1).

The Jerusalem Post has announced that Eilat Mazar has discovered a bulla (a seal impression) belonging to Gedalyahu ben Pashhur, the officer who served under Zedekiah. The bulla was found during an archaeological dig in Jerusalem’s City of David.

About her discovery, Eilat Mazar said:

“It is not very often that such a discovery happens in which real figures of the past shake off the dust of history and so vividly revive the stories of the Bible.”

Three years ago, Eilat Mazar discovered another bulla belonging to another officer in Zedekiah’s palace. The first bulla belonged to Jehucal ben Shelemyahu, who also served with Gedaliah (Jeremiah 38:1-4).

I have published two posts on Jehucal. To read my posts on Jehucal, click here and here.

Notwithstanding what people say about the Bible and archaeology, it is evident that archaeological discoveries reveal that the people mentioned in the Bible were historical figures and not people who belonged to an invented history created to justify the possession of the land by a group of people who returned to the same land that once had belonged to their ancestors.

Claude Mariottini
Professor of Old Testament
Northern Baptist Seminary

Tags: Archaeology, Eilat Mazar, Gedaliah, Jehucal